Development of cognitive processes content of activity. Development of cognitive processes of a preschooler

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INTRODUCTION

mental imagination thinking intelligence

The mental processes by which images of the environment are formed, as well as images of the organism itself and its internal environment, are called cognitive mental processes.

Mental processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking, speech - act as the most important components of any activity. In order to satisfy his needs, communicate, play, study and work, a person must perceive the world, pay attention to certain moments or components of activity, imagine what he needs to do, remember, think, and make judgments. Consequently, without the participation of mental processes, human activity is impossible; they act as its integral internal moments.

Occurring simultaneously, these processes interact with each other so harmoniously and so imperceptibly for us that at any given moment we perceive and understand the world not as a jumble of colors, shades, shapes, sounds, smells that need to be understood in order to establish what’s what , and not as a picture depicted on some screen, but precisely as a world outside of us, filled with light, sounds, smells, objects, inhabited by people, having a perspective and clearly perceived, as well as hidden, not perceived at the moment plan. Despite the fact that with the help of our senses at any given moment we perceive only part of the space, we know that the space of the world around us is holistic and continuous. Thanks to these processes, the world also appears before us in its temporal integrity and continuity, as something that develops and exists not only in the present, but also has a past and a future, as a result of which its temporal boundaries expand indefinitely.

1. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

In knowledge, it is customary to distinguish two levels: sensory and rational. The first level includes cognition through the senses. In the process of sensory cognition, a person develops an image, a picture of the surrounding world in its immediate reality and diversity. Sensory cognition is represented by sensations and perceptions. In rational knowledge, a person goes beyond the limits of sensory perception, reveals the essential properties, connections and relationships between objects of the surrounding world. Rational knowledge of the surrounding world is carried out thanks to thinking, memory and imagination.

Sensations are the simplest form of mental activity. They arise as a reflex reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus. The physiological basis of sensation is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it. The analyzer consists of three parts:

Peripheral section (receptor), transforming energy into a nervous process;

Conducting nerve pathways connecting the peripheral parts of the analyzer with its center: afferent (directed to the center) and efferent (going to the periphery);

The subcortical and cortical sections of the analyzer, where the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections occurs.

The cells of the peripheral parts of the analyzer correspond to certain areas of cortical cells. Numerous experiments make it possible to clearly establish the localization in the cortex of certain types of sensitivity. The visual analyzer is represented mainly in the occipital zones of the cortex, the auditory one - in the temporal zones, tactile-motor sensitivity is localized in the posterior central gyrus, etc.

For sensation to occur, the entire analyzer must operate. The impact of an irritant on the receptor causes irritation. The beginning of this irritation is expressed in the transformation of external energy into a nervous process, which is produced by the receptor. From the receptor, this process reaches the cortical part of the analyzer along afferent pathways, as a result of which the body’s response to irritation occurs - a person feels light, sound or other qualities of the stimulus. At the same time, the influence of the external or internal environment on the peripheral part of the analyzer causes a response that is transmitted along the efferent pathways and leads to the pupil dilating or contracting, the gaze being directed to the object, the hand withdrawing from the hot object, etc. The entire path described is called the reflex hoof. The interconnection of the elements of the reflex ring creates the basis for the orientation of a complex organism in the surrounding world and ensures the activity of the organism in different conditions of its existence.

Sensations are a form of reflection of adequate stimuli. For example, visual sensations arise when exposed to electromagnetic waves with a length ranging from 380 to 780 millimicrons, auditory sensations - when exposed to mechanical vibrations with a frequency of 16 to 20,000 Hz, volume from 16-18 to 120 decibels, tactile sensations are caused by the action of mechanical stimuli on the surface of the skin, vibrations are generated by the vibration of objects. Other sensations (temperature, olfactory, taste) also have their own specific stimuli. Closely related to the adequacy of the stimulus is the limitation of sensations, due to the structural features of the sense organs. The human ear cannot detect ultrasound, although some animals, such as dolphins, have this ability. Human eyes are sensitive to only a small part of the spectrum. A significant part of physical influences that do not have vital significance are not perceived by us. To perceive radiation and some other influences found on Earth in their pure form and in quantities that threaten human life, we simply do not have sense organs.

The spatial localization of the stimulus also determines the nature of the sensations. Spatial analysis, carried out by distant receptors, provides information about the localization of the stimulus in space. Contact sensations correspond to the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus. At the same time, the localization of pain sensations can be more diffuse and less accurate than tactile ones.

The main properties of perception as a perceptual activity are its objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, selectivity and meaningfulness.

The objectivity of perception is manifested in the attribution of images of perception to certain objects or phenomena of objective reality. Objectivity as a quality of perception plays an important role in the regulation of behavior. We define objects not by their appearance, but by how we use them in practice.

The integrity of perception lies in the fact that images of perception are holistic, complete, objectively shaped structures.

Thanks to the structure of perception, objects and phenomena of the surrounding world appear before us in the totality of their stable connections and relationships. For example, a certain melody, played on different instruments and in different keys, is perceived by the subject as one and the same, and stands out to him as an integral structure.

Constancy - ensures the relative constancy of the perception of the shape, size and color of an object, regardless of changes in its conditions. For example, the image of an object (including on the retina) increases when the distance to it decreases, and vice versa. However, the perceived size of the object remains unchanged. People who constantly live in a dense forest are distinguished by the fact that they have never seen objects at a great distance. When these people were shown objects that were at a great distance from them, they perceived these objects not as distant, but as small. Similar disturbances were observed among residents of the plains when they looked down from the height of a multi-story building: all objects seemed small or toy-like to them. At the same time, high-rise builders see objects below without distortion of size. These examples convincingly prove that constancy of perception is not an innate, but an acquired property. The actual source of constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system. From the diverse and variable flow of movements of the receptor apparatus and response sensations, the subject identifies a relatively constant, invariant structure of the perceived object. Repeated perception of the same objects under different conditions ensures the stability of the perceptual image relative to these changing conditions. The constancy of perception ensures the relative stability of the surrounding world, reflecting the unity of the object and the conditions of its existence.

Selectivity of perception consists in the preferential selection of some objects over others, due to the characteristics of the subject of perception: his experience, needs, motives, etc. At any given moment, a person identifies only some objects from the countless objects and phenomena surrounding him.

The meaningfulness of perception indicates its connection with thinking, with an understanding of the essence of objects. Despite the fact that perception arises as a result of the direct impact of an object on the senses, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. assign it to a certain category, summarize it in a word. Even when we see an unfamiliar object, we try to catch its similarity with familiar objects and classify it into a certain category.

Perception depends not only on irritation, but also on the perceiving subject himself. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, on the characteristics of his personality is called apperception. Perception is an active process that uses information to formulate and test hypotheses. The nature of the hypotheses is determined by the content of the individual’s past experience. The richer a person’s experience, the more knowledge he has, the brighter and richer his perception, the more he sees and hears.

The content of perception is also determined by the task set and the motives of the activity. For example, when listening to a piece of music performed by an orchestra, we perceive the music as a whole, without highlighting the sound of individual instruments. Only by setting the goal to highlight the sound of an instrument can this be done. An essential fact influencing the content of perception is the attitude of the subject, i.e. willingness to perceive something in a certain way. In addition, the process and content of perception are influenced by emotions.

Depending on which analyzer is the leading one, visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory perception are distinguished. The perception of the surrounding world, as a rule, is complex: it is the result of the joint activity of various senses. Depending on the object of perception, the perception of space, movement and time is distinguished.

Perception is often classified according to the degree to which consciousness is directed and focused on a particular object. In this case, we can distinguish intentional (voluntary) and unintentional (involuntary) perception. Intentional perception is, at its core, observation. The success of observation largely depends on prior knowledge about the observed object. Purposeful development of observation skills is an indispensable condition for the professional training of many specialists; it also forms an important personality quality - observation.

Thus, sensation and perception are integral elements of cognitive psychological processes.

2. IMAGINATION AND CREATIVITY

Imagination plays an essential role in every creative process. Its significance is especially great in artistic creativity. Every work of art worthy of this name has an ideological content, but unlike a scientific treatise, it expresses it in a concrete figurative form. If an artist is forced to derive the idea of ​​his work in abstract formulas, so that the ideological content of the work of art appears along with its images, without receiving adequate and sufficiently vivid expression within them, his work loses its artistry. The visual and figurative content of a work of art and only this should be the bearer of its ideological content. The essence of artistic imagination lies, first of all, in being able to create new images that can be a plastic carrier of ideological content. The special power of artistic imagination lies in creating an imaginary new situation not by violating, but subject to preserving the basic requirements of life reality.

The idea that the more bizarre and outlandish a work is, the greater the power of imagination it testifies to is fundamentally erroneous. Leo Tolstoy's imagination is no weaker than Edgar Allan Poe's imagination. This is just another imagination. In order to create new images and paint a broad picture on a large canvas, maximally observing the conditions of objective reality, special originality, plasticity and creative independence of the imagination are needed. The more realistic a work of art is, the more strictly it adheres to the reality of life, the more powerful the imagination must be in order to make the visual-figurative content with which the artist operates a plastic expression of his artistic intent.

Observance of life reality does not mean, of course, photographic reproduction or copying of what is directly perceived. The immediately given, as it is usually perceived in everyday experience, is for the most part accidental; it does not always highlight the characteristic, essential content that determines the individual face of a person, event, or phenomenon. A true artist not only has the technique necessary to depict what he sees, but he also sees differently than an artistically insensitive person. And the task of a work of art is to show others what the artist sees, with such plasticity that others see it too. Thus, the portrait of Anna Karenina, painted by a real artist, for the first time revealed to Vronsky that very sweet expression of hers, which, as it seemed to Vronsky after he saw the portrait, he always knew and loved in her, although in fact it was only thanks to the portrait that he really saw it for the first time .

There is no better way to express what the essence of artistic creativity is. Even in a portrait, the artist does not photograph or reproduce, but transforms what is perceived. The essence of this transformation is that it is not removed, but approaches reality, that it, as it were, removes random layers and external covers from it. As a result, its main pattern is revealed more deeply and accurately. The product of such imagination often gives an essentially truer, deeper, more adequate picture or image of reality than a photographic reproduction of the directly given is able to do.

An image, internally transformed by the idea of ​​a work of art so that in all its vital reality it turns out to be a plastic expression of a certain ideological content, is the highest product of creative artistic imagination. A powerful creative imagination is recognized not so much by what a person can invent, regardless of the real requirements of reality and the ideal requirements of artistic design, but rather by how he is able to transform the reality of everyday perception, burdened with random, devoid of expressiveness strokes, in accordance with the requirements reality and artistic intent. The imagination creates in visual images, so similar and at the same time different from our perceptions, faded and erased in everyday life, a miraculously revived, transformed and yet seemingly more authentic world than that given to us in everyday perception.

Imagination in artistic creativity also allows, of course, a significant departure from reality, a more or less significant deviation from it. Artistic creativity is not only expressed in a portrait; it includes both a fairy tale and a fantasy story. In a fairy tale, in a fantasy story, deviations from reality can be very large. But both in a fairy tale and in a fantastic story itself, deviations from reality must be objectively motivated by a plan, an idea, which is embodied in images. And the more significant these deviations from reality are, the more objectively motivated they should be. In a work of art, creative imagination resorts to fantasy, to deviations from certain aspects of reality in order to give figurative clarity to reality, the main idea or idea that indirectly reflects some essential aspect of reality.

Imagination, in other forms, is no less necessary in scientific creativity.

Another great English chemist of the 18th century. J. Priestley, who discovered oxygen, argued that truly great discoveries, which “a rational, slow and cowardly mind would never have thought of,” can only be made by scientists who “give full play to their imagination.” T. Ribot was even inclined to assert that if we “sum up the amount of imagination expended and embodied, on the one hand, in the field of artistic creativity, and on the other, in technical and mechanical inventions, then we will find that the second is significantly greater than the first.” .

Lenin also highly regarded the role of imagination in scientific creativity. He wrote: “... it is absurd to deny the role of fantasy in the most rigorous science.” “They think in vain,” notes V.I. in another place - that it (fantasy - S.R.) is needed only by the poet. This is a stupid prejudice. Even in mathematics it is needed, even the discovery of differential and integral calculus would be impossible without imagination. Fantasy is a quality of the greatest value...”

Participating together with thinking in the process of scientific creativity, imagination performs a specific function in it, different from the one that thinking performs in it. The specific role of imagination is that it transforms the figurative, visual content of the problem and thereby contributes to its resolution. And only since creativity, the discovery of something new, occurs through the transformation of visual-figurative content, can it be attributed to the imagination. In a real thought process, a visual image also participates in unity with the concept to one degree or another. But the figurative content of perception and the representation of memory, which reproduces this content, sometimes do not provide sufficient reference points for resolving the problem facing thinking. Sometimes it is necessary to transform visual content in order to advance the resolution of a problem; then the imagination comes into its own.

This role of imagination appears very clearly in experimental research. The experimenter, when planning an experiment, must, based on his theoretical hypotheses and taking into account the already established laws of a given scientific field, imagine, imagine such a situation that is not directly given, which, satisfying all these conditions, would make it possible to test the original hypothesis. This construction of a specific experimental situation in the imagination of the experimenter, preceding the experiment, is an act of imagination operating in scientific research.

The imagination, necessary for the transformation of reality and creative activity, was formed in the process of this creative activity. The development of imagination occurred as more and more perfect products of imagination were created. In the process of creating poetry, fine art, music and their development, new, higher and more perfect forms of image were formed and developed. In the great works of folk art, in epics, sagas, in folk epics, in the works of poets and artists - in the “Iliad” and “Odyssey”, in the “Song of Roland”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” - imagination not only manifested itself, but and was formed. The creation of great works of art, which taught people to see the world in a new way, opened up a new field for the activity of the imagination.

Not to a lesser extent, but only in other forms, imagination is formed in the process of scientific creativity. The infinity revealed by science in the big and small, in worlds and atoms, in the innumerable variety of concrete forms and their unity, in continuous movement and change, provides for the development of imagination in its own way no less than the richest imagination of an artist can provide.

Finally, imagination is formed in practical activity - especially in revolutionary eras, when the practical activity of people breaks established norms and routine ideas, revolutionizing the world.

3. THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE

To the term “thinking” we can associate in our ordinary language the word “deliberation” or (less normatively, but perhaps more accurately) “thinking.” The word “mind” expresses a property, an ability; thinking is a process. When solving a problem, we think, and do not “get smart” - this is the sphere of the psychology of thinking, not intelligence. Thus, both terms express different aspects of the same phenomenon. An intelligent person is one who is capable of carrying out thinking processes. Intelligence is the ability to think. Thinking is a process in which intelligence is realized.

Thinking and intelligence have long been considered the most important and distinctive features of a person. It is not without reason that the term “homo sapiens” is used to define the type of modern man. A person who has lost his sight, hearing or ability to move, of course, suffers a severe loss, but does not cease to be a person. After all, deaf Beethoven or blind Homer are considered by us as great personalities. The one who has lost his mind seems to us to be struck at the very essence of humanity.

The description of the various types and types of thinking is based on the premise that there is no thinking at all: thinking is heterogeneous and subject to detail. Different types of thinking are divided according to their functional purpose, development, structure, means used, and cognitive capabilities.

In psychology, the most common classification of types of thinking is: visual-actional, visual-figurative, verbal-logical. This classification is based on a genetic principle and reflects three successive levels of development of thinking. Each of these types of thinking is determined by two criteria. One of them (the first part of the names) is the specific form in which it is necessary to present the subject with a cognizable object or situation in order for them to be able to be successfully operated:

the object as such in its materiality and concreteness;

an object depicted in a picture, diagram, drawing;

an object described in one or another sign system.

Another criterion (the second part of the names) is the main ways in which a person experiences the world around him:

through practical action with an object;

using figurative representations;

based on logical concepts and other sign formations.

The main characteristic of visual-effective thinking is determined by the ability to observe real objects and learn the relationships between them in a real transformation of the situation. Practical cognitive objective actions are the basis of all later forms of thinking. With visual-figurative thinking, the situation is transformed in terms of image or representation. The subject operates with visual images of objects through their figurative representations. At the same time, the image of an object allows one to combine a set of heterogeneous practical operations into a holistic picture. Mastery of visual and figurative representations expands the scope of practical thinking.

At the level of verbal-logical thinking, a subject can, using logical concepts, cognize essential patterns and unobservable relationships of the reality under study. The development of verbal-logical thinking rebuilds and organizes the world of figurative ideas and practical actions.

The described types of thinking form the stages of development of thinking in phylogenesis and ontogenesis. They coexist in an adult and function in solving various problems. Therefore, they cannot be assessed in terms of greater or lesser value. Verbal-logical thinking cannot be the “ideal” of thinking in general, the end point of intellectual development.

Intelligence (from the Latin intellectus - understanding, understanding, comprehension) in psychology is defined as the general ability to cognition and problem solving, which determines the success of any activity and underlies other abilities. Intelligence is not limited to thinking, although thinking abilities form the basis of intelligence. In general, intelligence is a system of all human cognitive abilities: sensation, perception, memory, representation, imagination and thinking. The concept of intelligence as a general mental ability is used as a generalization of behavioral characteristics associated with successful adaptation to new life challenges.

In 1937, the first version of his test for measuring intelligence was proposed by D. Wexler. He created a scale to measure intelligence not only for children, but also for adults. The Wechsler intellectual scale for children has been translated into Russian, adapted and widely used in our country. The Wechsler scale differed significantly from the Stanford-Binet test. The tasks that were offered to the subjects according to L. Theremin’s method were the same for all ages. The basis for the assessment was the number of correct answers given by the subject. This number was then compared with the average number of responses for subjects in that age group. This procedure greatly simplified the calculation of IQ. D. Wexler proposed a qualitative classification of levels of intelligence development, based on the frequency of occurrence of a certain IQ:

and below - mental defect (dementia);

79 - borderline level of development;

89 - reduced level of intelligence;

109 - average level of intelligence;

119 is a good norm;

129-high intelligence;

and above - very high intelligence.

Currently, interest in intelligence tests has weakened significantly, primarily due to the low predictive value of these methods: subjects with high scores on intelligence tests do not always achieve high achievements in life, and vice versa. In this regard, the term “good intelligence” even appeared in psychology, which is understood as intellectual abilities that are effectively implemented in a person’s real life and contribute to his high social achievements.

Today, despite attempts to identify new “elementary intellectual abilities,” researchers are generally inclined to believe that general intelligence exists as a universal mental ability. In connection with the successes in the development of cybernetics, systems theory, information theory, etc., there has been a tendency to understand intelligence as the cognitive activity of any complex systems capable of learning, purposeful processing of information and self-regulation. The results of psychogenetic studies indicate a high level of genetic determination of intelligence. Nonverbal intelligence is more trainable. The individual level of intellectual development is also determined by a number of environmental influences: the “intellectual climate” of the family, the order of birth of the child in the family, the profession of the parents, the breadth of social contacts in early childhood, etc.

CONCLUSION

Human life requires an active study of the objective laws of the surrounding reality. Understanding the world and building an image of this world are necessary for a full orientation in it, for a person to achieve his own goals. Knowledge of the surrounding world is included in all spheres of human activity and the main forms of its activity.

Sensation is a process of primary information processing, which is a reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena that arise when they directly impact the sense organs, as well as a reflection of the internal properties of the body. Sensation performs the function of orienting the subject in individual, most elementary properties of the objective world.

Perception (perception) is the reflection in the human mind of objects, phenomena, integral situations of the objective world with their direct impact on the senses. In contrast to sensations, in the processes of perception (of a situation, a person), a holistic image of an object is formed, which is called a perceptual image. The image of perception is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations, although it includes them in its composition.

Imagination plays an essential role in every creative process. Its significance is especially great in artistic creativity.

Participating together with thinking in the process of scientific creativity, imagination performs a specific function in it, different from the one that thinking performs in it. The specific role of imagination is that it transforms the figurative, visual content of the problem and thereby contributes to its resolution.

Imagination is formed in practical activity - especially in revolutionary eras, when the practical activity of people breaks established norms and routine ideas, revolutionizing the world.

Thinking and intelligence are similar terms. Their relationship becomes even clearer when translated into words from ordinary Russian. In this case, the word “mind” will correspond to intelligence. We say “smart person” to denote individual differences in intelligence. We can also say that the child’s mind develops with age - this conveys the problem of intellectual development.

Thus, both terms express different aspects of the same phenomenon. An intelligent person is one who is capable of carrying out thinking processes. Intelligence is the ability to think. Thinking is a process in which intelligence is realized.

LIST OF REFERENCES USED

1. Godefroy J. What is psychology? A textbook of general psychology with the basics of the physiology of higher nervous activity: in 2 volumes. T.1. / lane from fr. N.N. Alipov, per. from fr. A.V. Pegelau, trans. from fr. T.Ya. Estrina, ed. G.G. Arakelov. - M.: Mir, 1992. - 491 p.

2.Kotova I.B. General psychology: textbook for universities / I.B. Kotova, O.S. Kanarkevich. - M.: Dashkov and K", 2008. - 478 p.

3.Leontyev A.N. Lectures on general psychology: textbook for universities / A.N. Leontiev, ed. YES. Leontyev, E.E. Sokolova. - M.: Smysl, 2000. - 511 p.

4. Poddyakov A.N. Psychodiagnostics of intelligence: identification and suppression of abilities, identification and suppression of capable ones // Psychology. Journal of the Higher School of Economics. 2004. Volume 1. No. 4. pp. 75-80.

5. Starovoitenko E.B. Modern psychology: forms of intellectual life: textbook for universities / E.B. Starovoytenko. - M.: Academician. Project, 2001. - 539 p.

6.Ushakov D.V. Thinking // Cognitive psychology / Ed. V.N. Druzhinina, D.V. Ushakova. M.: Per Se, 2002, p. 171-194, 200-202, 204-224, 233-240.

7.Ushakov D.V. Thinking and intelligence // Psychology of the 21st century / Ed. V.N. Druzhinina. M.: Per Se, 2003, p. 291-353.

8.Ushakov D.V. Social intelligence as a type of intelligence // Social intelligence: theory, measurement, research / Ed. D.V. Lyusina, D.V. Ushakova. M.: Institute of Psychology RAS, 2004, pp. 11-28.

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Theoretical foundations of the development of cognitive processes in preschool children: speech, thinking, memory. Perception is a necessary prerequisite and condition for the life and activities of preschool children. The role of imagination in teaching and raising children. Features of the development of sensations.

Perception

Perception in preschool age loses its initially affective character: perceptual and emotional processes are differentiated. Perception becomes meaningful, purposeful, and analytical. It highlights voluntary actions - observation, examination, search.

The process of development of children's perception in preschool age was studied in detail by L.A. Wenger. According to Wenger, the basis of perception is perceptual actions. Their quality depends on the child’s assimilation of systems of perceptual standards. Such standards for the perception of, for example, shapes are geometric figures, for the perception of color - the spectral range, for the perception of sizes - the physical quantities adopted for their assessment.

Stages of formation of perceptual actions. Perceptual actions are formed in learning, and their development goes through a number of stages. The process of their formation (the first stage) begins with practical, material actions performed with unfamiliar objects. This stage poses new perceptual tasks for the child. At this stage, the necessary corrections necessary to form an adequate image are made directly into material actions. The best results of perception are obtained when the child is offered for comparison so-called sensory standards, which also appear in external, material form. With them, the child has the opportunity to compare the perceived object in the process of working with it.

At the second stage, the sensory processes themselves, restructured under the influence of practical activity, become perceptual actions. Perceptual actions are now carried out with the help of receptor apparatus and anticipate the implementation of practical actions with perceived objects. At this stage, children become familiar with the spatial properties of objects with the help of extensive orienting and exploratory movements of the hand and eye.

At the third stage, perceptual actions become even more hidden, collapsed, reduced, their external effector links disappear, and perception from the outside begins to seem like a passive process. In fact, this process is still active, but it occurs internally, mainly only in the consciousness and on a subconscious level in the child.

The role of visual components in perception. The development of the perception process in preschool age allows children to quickly recognize the properties of objects that interest them, distinguish some objects from others, and clarify the connections and relationships that exist between them. At the same time, the figurative principle, very strong in this period, often prevents the child from drawing correct conclusions regarding what he observes. In J. Bruner's experiments, many preschoolers correctly judge the conservation of the amount of water in glasses when water is poured from one glass to another behind a screen. But when the screen is removed and the children see a change in the water level in the glasses (achieved due to the different base areas of the glasses), direct perception leads to an error: the children say that there is less water in the glass where the water level is lower. In general, in preschoolers, perception and thinking are so closely connected that they speak of visual-figurative thinking, which is most characteristic of this age.

Attention

The attention of a child of early preschool age is involuntary. It is evoked by visually attractive objects, events and people and remains focused as long as the child retains a direct interest in the perceived objects.

At the stage of transition from involuntary to voluntary attention, the means that control the child’s attention are important. Reasoning out loud helps a child develop voluntary attention. If a 4-5 year old preschooler is asked to constantly name out loud what he should keep in the sphere of his attention, then the child will be quite able to voluntarily and for quite a long time maintain his attention on certain objects or their details.

From younger to older preschool age, children's attention progresses simultaneously along many different characteristics. Younger preschoolers usually look at pictures that are attractive to them for no more than 6-8 s, while older preschoolers are able to focus on the same image for 12 to 20 s. The same applies to the time spent doing the same activity for children of different ages. In preschool childhood, significant individual differences are already observed in the degree of stability of attention in different children, which probably depends on the type of their nervous activity, physical condition and living conditions. Nervous and sick children are more often distracted than calm and healthy children, and the difference in the stability of their attention can reach one and a half to two times.

Preschool childhood is the age most favorable for memory development.

Memory at this age acquires a dominant function among other cognitive processes. Neither before nor after this period does the child remember the most varied material with such ease.

Types of memory. The memory of a preschooler has a number of specific features. In younger preschoolers, memory is involuntary. The child does not set a goal to remember or remember something and does not have special methods of memorization. Events, actions, and images that are interesting to him are easily imprinted, and verbal material is also involuntarily remembered if it evokes an emotional response. The child quickly remembers poems, especially those that are perfect in form: sonority, rhythm and adjacent rhymes are important in them. Fairy tales, short stories, and dialogues from films are remembered when the child empathizes with their characters.

During preschool age, the efficiency of involuntary memorization increases. In children of early preschool age, involuntary visual-emotional memory dominates. In some cases, linguistically or musically gifted children also have well-developed auditory memory.

Children of primary and middle preschool age have well-developed mechanical memory. Children easily remember and reproduce without much effort what they saw or heard, but only if it aroused their interest and the children themselves were interested in remembering or remembering something. Thanks to such memory, preschoolers quickly improve their speech and learn to use household items.

The more meaningful the material a child remembers, the better the memorization. Semantic memory develops along with mechanical memory, so it cannot be assumed that in preschoolers who repeat someone else’s text with great accuracy, mechanical memory predominates. With active mental work, children remember material better than without such work.

The first recollection of impressions received in early childhood usually occurs around the age of three years (meaning adult memories associated with childhood). It has been found that almost 75% of children's first recalls occur between the ages of three and four years. This means that by this age, i.e., by the beginning of early preschool childhood, the child has developed long-term memory and its basic mechanisms.

In middle preschool age (between 4 and 5 years), voluntary memory begins to form. Improving voluntary memory in preschoolers is closely related to setting them special tasks for memorizing, preserving and reproducing material. Many such tasks arise in gaming activities, so games provide the child with rich opportunities for memory development. Children as young as 3-4 years old can voluntarily memorize, remember and recall material in games.

Stages of formation of arbitrary memory. 3. M. Istomina analyzed how the process of developing voluntary memorization occurs in preschoolers. In primary and middle preschool age, memorization and reproduction are involuntary. In older preschool age, there is a gradual transition from involuntary to voluntary memorization and reproduction of material.

The transition from involuntary to voluntary memory includes two stages.

At the first stage, the necessary motivation is formed, i.e. the desire to remember or remember something. At the second stage, the mnemonic actions and operations necessary for this arise and are improved.

In the initial stages, conscious, purposeful memorization and recollection appear only sporadically. Usually they are included in other types of activities, since they are needed both in play, and when running errands for adults, and during classes - preparing children for school.

Children's memory productivity in play is much higher than outside of it. By playing, it is easier for a child to reproduce difficult-to-memorize material. Let's say, having taken on the role of a seller, he is able to remember and recall at the right time a long list of products and other goods. If you give him a similar list of words outside of a game situation, he will not be able to cope with this task.

In order for the transition to voluntary memorization to become possible, special perceptual actions must appear aimed at better remembering, more fully and more accurately reproducing the material retained in memory. The first special perceptual actions are distinguished in the activities of a 5-6 year old child, and most often they use simple repetition for memorization. By the age of 6-7 years, the process of voluntary memorization can be considered formed. Its psychological sign is the child’s desire to discover and use logical connections in the material for memorization.

Features of mnemonic processes. It is believed that with age, the speed at which information is retrieved from long-term memory and transferred to working memory, as well as the volume and duration of working memory, increases. It has been established that a three-year-old child can operate with only one unit of information currently located in RAM, and a fifteen-year-old child can operate with seven such units.

With age, the child’s ability to evaluate the capabilities of his own memory develops, and the older the children, the better they can do this. Over time, the strategies for memorizing and reproducing material that the child uses become more diverse and flexible. Of 12 pictures presented, a 4-year-old child, for example, recognizes all 12, but is able to reproduce only two or three, while a 10-year-old child, having recognized all the pictures, is able to reproduce 8 of them.

Imagination

The beginning of the development of children's imagination is associated with the end of early childhood, when the child first demonstrates the ability to replace some objects with others and use some objects in the role of others (symbolic function). Imagination is further developed in games, where symbolic substitutions are made quite often and using a variety of means and techniques.

Types of imagination. In the first half of preschool childhood, the child’s reproductive imagination predominates, mechanically reproducing received impressions in the form of images. These can be impressions received by the child as a result of direct perception of reality, listening to stories, fairy tales, or watching films. Imaginative images of this type restore reality not on an intellectual, but on an emotional basis. The images usually reproduce something that made an emotional impression on the child, caused him to have very specific emotional reactions, and turned out to be especially interesting. In general, the imagination of preschool children is still quite weak.

The younger preschooler is not yet able to completely restore the picture from memory, dismember and then creatively use the individual parts of what he perceived as fragments from which something new can be put together. Younger preschoolers are characterized by the inability to imagine things from a point of view different from their own, from a different angle. If you ask a six-year-old child to arrange objects on one part of the plane in the same way as they are located on another part of it, turned to the first at an angle of 90°, this usually causes great difficulties for children of this age. It is difficult for them to mentally transform not only spatial, but also simple planar images.

In older preschool age, when voluntary memorization appears, the imagination turns from reproductive, mechanically reproducing reality into creative imagination. The main type of activity where children's creative imagination is manifested is role-playing games.

Cognitive imagination is formed by separating the image from the object and designating the image using a word. Affective imagination develops as a result of the child’s awareness of his “I”, psychological separation of himself from other people and from the actions he performs.

Functions of the imagination. Thanks to the cognitive-intellectual function of imagination, the child learns better about the world around him and solves the problems that arise before him more easily and successfully. Imagination in children also plays an affective and protective role. It protects the child’s easily vulnerable and weakly protected soul from excessively difficult experiences and traumas. The emotional-protective role of imagination is that through an imaginary situation, tension can be discharged and a unique, symbolic resolution of conflicts can occur, which is difficult to achieve with the help of real practical actions.

Stages of imagination development. Imagination, like any other mental activity, goes through a certain development path in human ontogenesis. O.M. Dyachenko showed that children's imagination in its development is subject to the same laws that other mental processes follow. Just like perception, memory and attention, imagination from involuntary (passive) becomes voluntary (active), gradually turns from direct to mediated, and the main tool for mastering it on the part of the child is sensory standards.

The initial stage in the development of imagination can be attributed to 2.5-3 years. It is at this time that imagination, as a direct and involuntary reaction to a situation, begins to turn into a voluntary process and is divided into cognitive and affective.

The development of cognitive imagination is associated with the process of “objectifying” the image through action. Through this process, the child learns to manage his images, change and clarify them, and regulate his imagination. However, he is not yet able to plan it, to draw up a program of upcoming actions in his mind in advance. This ability appears in children only at 4-5 years of age.

The development of affective imagination from the age of 2.5-3 years to 4-5 years goes through a number of stages. At the first stage, negative emotional experiences in children are symbolically expressed in the characters of the fairy tales they hear. At the second stage, the child can already build imaginary situations that remove threats to his “I” (stories - children’s fantasies about themselves as supposedly possessing especially pronounced positive qualities). At the third stage, a projection mechanism is formed, thanks to which unpleasant knowledge about oneself, one’s own unacceptable qualities and actions begin to be attributed by the child to other people, surrounding objects and animals. By the age of about 6-7 years, the development of affective imagination in children reaches a level where many of them are able to imagine and live in an imaginary world.

By the end of the preschool period of childhood, the child’s imagination is presented in two main forms:

A) arbitrary, independent generation of an idea by a child;

B) the emergence of an imaginary plan for its implementation.

Thinking

The main lines of development of thinking in preschool childhood can be outlined as follows:

Further improvement of visual and effective thinking based on developing imagination;

Improving visual-figurative thinking based on voluntary and indirect memory;

The beginning of the active formation of verbal-logical thinking through the use of speech as a means of setting and solving intellectual problems.

Stages of development of thinking. N.N. Poddyakov identified six stages of development of thinking from junior to senior preschool age. These steps are as follows.

1. The child is not yet able to act in his mind, but is already able to use his hands, manipulating things, to solve problems in a visually effective way.

2. In the process of solving a problem, the child has already included speech, but he uses it only to name objects with which he manipulates in a visually effective manner. Basically, the child still solves problems “with his hands and eyes,” although he can formulate the result of the practical action performed in verbal form.

3. The problem is solved figuratively through the manipulation of images of objects. Here the ways of performing actions aimed at solving the task are realized and can be verbally indicated. An elementary form of reasoning aloud arises, not yet separated from the performance of real practical action.

4. The child solves the problem according to a previously drawn up and internally presented plan. It is based on memory and experience accumulated in the process of previous attempts to solve similar problems.

5. The problem is solved internally (in the mind), followed by the implementation of the same task in a visually-effective manner in order to reinforce the answer found in the mind and then formulate it in words.

6. The solution to the problem is carried out only in the internal plan with the issuance of a ready-made verbal solution without subsequent recourse to practical actions with objects.

An important conclusion that was made by Poddyakov is that in children the stages passed in the development of mental actions do not completely disappear, but are transformed and replaced by more advanced ones. Children's intelligence at this age functions on the basis of the principle of consistency. It presents and, if necessary, simultaneously includes in the work all types and levels of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical.

Conditions of mental activity. Despite the peculiar childish logic, preschoolers can reason correctly and solve quite complex problems. Correct answers can be obtained from them under certain conditions.

First of all, the child needs to have time to remember the task itself. In addition, he must imagine the conditions of the task, and for this he must understand them. Therefore, it is important to formulate the task in such a way that it is understandable to children. In one American study, 4-year-old children were shown toys - 3 cars and 4 garages. All the cars are in garages, but one garage remains empty. The child is asked: “Are all the cars in garages?” Children usually say that not everything. A small child believes that if there are 4 garages, then there must be 4 cars. From this he concludes: there is a fourth car, but it has disappeared somewhere. Consequently, the child misunderstood the task assigned to him.

The best way to achieve the right decision is to organize the child’s actions so that he draws appropriate conclusions based on his own experience. A.V. Zaporozhets asked preschoolers about physical phenomena little known to them, in particular, why some objects float and others sink. Having received more or less fantastic answers, he suggested that they throw various things into the water (a small nail that seemed light, a large wooden block, etc.). Beforehand, the children guessed whether the object would float or not. After a sufficiently large number of trials, having checked their initial assumptions, the children began to reason consistently and logically. They developed the ability for the simplest forms of induction and deduction.

Thus, in favorable conditions, when a preschooler solves a problem that is understandable and interesting to him and at the same time observes facts that are understandable to him, he can reason logically correctly.

Development of verbal and logical thinking. A child’s verbal and logical thinking, which begins to develop at the end of preschool age, already presupposes the ability to operate with words and understand the logic of reasoning.

The development of verbal and logical thinking in children goes through at least two stages. At the first stage, the child learns the meanings of words related to objects and actions and learns to use them when solving problems. At the second stage, they learn a system of concepts denoting relationships and learn the rules of logic of reasoning. The latter usually refers to the beginning of schooling.

At preschool age, the process of mastering concepts is just beginning. A three- to four-year-old child can use concepts. However, he uses them differently than an adult, often without fully understanding their meaning. The child uses them as labels that replace an action or object.

Although the concepts remain at the everyday level, the content of the concept begins to more and more correspond to what most adults put into this concept. So, for example, a 5-year-old child already acquires such an abstract concept as “living being.” He easily and quickly classifies a crocodile as “living” (he needs only 0.4 seconds), but has a little difficulty classifying a tree (1.3 seconds) or a tulip (almost 2 seconds) into this category.

Children begin to use concepts better and operate with them in their minds. Let's say, it is much more difficult for a 3-year-old child to imagine the concepts of “day” and “hour” than for a 7-year-old. This is expressed, in particular, in the fact that he cannot estimate how long he will have to wait for his mother if she promised to return in an hour.

By the end of preschool age, a tendency toward generalization and the establishment of logical connections appears. The emergence of a generalization is important for the further development of intelligence, despite the fact that children often make unlawful generalizations, focusing on bright external signs (a small object means light, a large object means heavy, etc.).

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Introduction

Chapter I. Theoretical foundations for the development of cognitive processes in preschool children

1.1 Speech development

1.2 Sensory development

1.3 Development of thinking

1.4 General characteristics of attention

1.5 Perception is a necessary prerequisite and condition for the life and activities of preschool children

1.6 Features of the development of sensations

1.7 Memory and its development

1.8 The role of imagination development in teaching and raising children

Chapter II. Study of the developmental features of cognitive processes in preschoolers aged 5 - 6 years

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

educational preschool imagination sensation

The successful education of children in primary school depends on the level of development of the child’s thinking, the ability to generalize and systematize his knowledge, and creatively solve various problems. Preschool childhood is a large period of a child’s life. Living conditions at this time are rapidly expanding: the boundaries of the family are expanding to the limits of the street, city, and country. The child discovers the world of human relationships, different types activities and social functions of people.

According to the concept of L.S. Vygotsky, during the transition period from primary to preschool age, a restructuring of the structure of consciousness occurs, and thanks to this, all other mental processes are intellectualized. Assessing the shifting possibilities of organized training, L.S. Vygodsky wrote that “training can provide more in development than what is contained in its immediate results. Applied to one point in the sphere of a child's thought, it modifies and rearranges many other points. It can have long-term, and not just immediate, consequences in development” Vygodsky L.S. Selected psychological studies. M.:, 1956, p. 257.

The uniqueness of each person is beyond doubt. However, the ability to express it is a problem for most people. Therefore, from preschool age it is necessary to develop speech, imagination, attention, thinking, for future educational activities.

In early childhood, cognition develops in the process of mastering instrumental action, when it is necessary to establish relationships between objects. In preschool age, under the influence of productive, design and artistic activities, a child develops complex types of perceptual analytical-synthetic activity, in particular the ability to mentally dissect a visible object into parts and then combine them into a single whole, before such operations are carried out in practical terms.

Many outstanding psychologists dealt with the development of cognitive processes in children: L.S. Vygodsky, L.A. Wenger, P.P. Blonsky, A.V. Zaporozhets, J. Guilford, R. Torrence, P. Ya. Galperin, D. B. Elkonin, O. S. Gazman, V. A. Petrovsky, R. S. Bure and others.

I believe that the problem of studying the timely development of cognitive processes is relevant, since preschool age is unique and what is “not picked up” at the beginning will be difficult or even impossible to make up in the future.

The purpose of this course work: to determine the characteristics of the cognitive activity of preschoolers aged 5 - 6 years.

Object of study: preschoolers aged 5 - 6 years.

Subject of research: all cognitive processes during preschool age.

Tasks:

1. Explore theoretical ideas about the development of cognitive processes in preschool children.

2. To experimentally identify the specifics of the development of cognitive processes in preschool children aged 5 - 6 years.

Chapter I. Theoretical foundations of the development of cognitive processes preschoolers

1.1 Speech development

The first years of a child's life are especially susceptible to the development of speech and cognitive processes. It is during this period of development that children develop a sense of linguistic phenomena and unique general linguistic abilities. At the same time, the growth of vocabulary, the development of the grammatical structure of speech and cognitive processes directly depend on living conditions and upbringing. Individual variations here are quite large, especially in speech development.

Speech - The ability to speak, to express thoughts in words. t. 3.1987.S. 713 Using speech and knowing many words, the child does not recognize words for a long time as words that mean something, but exist separately as systems of symbols. With age, a child's speech develops. Its development occurs not only due to those linguistic abilities that are expressed in the child’s own sense of language. The child listens to the sound of the word and evaluates this sound.

When talking with each other, children address their statements to each other. The first developed forms of dialogic speech appear.

Preschoolers of 4-5 years of age do not yet have the ability to carry out dialogic communication. A child of this age does not yet have the skills to use pragmatics; he has mastered only the upper layers of socialized speech - grammar and vocabulary.

By the age of six, a child’s vocabulary increases, so much so that he can easily communicate with another person on any matter related to everyday life and within his sphere of interests. If at three years old a normally developed child uses up to 500 or more words, then a six year old child uses from 3000 to 7000 words. A six-year-old child's vocabulary consists of nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, numerals and connecting words.

A six-year-old child, if you explain some laws to him dimensions of speech, he will easily turn his activity to the knowledge of speech from a new side for him and, while playing, will carry out analysis.

During this period, children develop an orientation towards the systems of their native language. The sound shell of the tongue is a subject of active, natural activity for a six-year-old child. By the age of six, the child already masters spoken language to such an extent complex system grammar, that the language he speaks becomes native to him. If the child attends kindergarten, then he must be trained in the skills of conscious speech analysis. He can perform a sound analysis of a word, divide the word into its constituent sounds and establish the order of sounds in the word. The child easily and joyfully pronounces words in such a way as to intonationally highlight the sound with which the word begins. Then he distinguishes the second and all subsequent sounds just as well.

Preschooler with special training, he can pronounce words in order to identify the sound composition, while overcoming the habitual stereotype of pronouncing words that has developed in live speech. The ability to perform sound analysis of words contributes to the successful mastery of reading and writing.

Without special training, a child will not be able to conduct a sound test. analysis of even the simplest words. This is understandable: verbal communication itself does not pose the tasks for the child, in the process of solving which these specific forms of analysis developed. A child who cannot analyze the sound composition of a word cannot be considered retarded. He's just not trained.

The main function of speech is communication, communication, or, as is customary, yell, communication. A six-year-old child is already able to communicate at the level of contextual speech - that very speech that quite fully describes what is being said, and therefore is completely understandable without direct perception of the situation being discussed. A retelling of a story heard and one’s own account of what happened are accessible to a six-year-old child. But here we should include many “ifs”: if the child developed in a cultural language environment, if the adults around him demanded an intelligible statement, an understanding of what he is saying to others; if the child already understands that he must control his speech in order to be understood.

If the child is listener-oriented, strives to describe the More specifically, the situation in question is sought to be explained by a pronoun that so easily precedes a noun, which means that he already understands the value of intelligible communication. The situational method of verbal communication begins to be replaced by the contextual one. A child with developed speech has speech means that he appropriates from adults and uses in his contextual speech. Of course, even very good development the speech of a six-year-old child is childish speech.

For cultural speech, it is important not only how the structure of pre statements, not only the clarity of the thought being expressed, but also how the child addresses another person, how the message is pronounced. A person’s speech is not dispassionate; it always carries within it expression - expressiveness that reflects the emotional state.

The emotional culture of speech is of great importance in a person’s life. Speech can be “smooth” and expressive. But it can be careless, excessively fast or slow, pronounced in a sullen tone or sluggishly and quietly. By the way a child speaks, how his expressive function of speech is developed, we can judge the speech environment that shapes his speech.

Of particular psychological interest is the question of the formation of the most complex type of speech in preschool children - written. L. S. Vygotsky once expressed certain positive thoughts on this matter: “The history of writing in a child,” he wrote, “begins much earlier than the moment when the teacher first puts a pencil in his hands and shows him how to write letters.” Vygotsky L. S. Prehistory of written speech // Reader on developmental pedagogical psychology.-- Part I.--M., 1980. P. 73.

The origins of the formation of this ability go back to the beginning of preschool childhood and are associated with the emergence of graphic symbolism. If a child of 3-4 years old is given the task of writing down and remembering a phrase (children at this age, naturally, do not yet know how to read or write), then at first the child seems to be “writing down”, drawing something completely meaningless on paper, leaving There are meaningless lines and scribbles on it. However, in the future, when the child is given the task of “reading” what has been written down, as a result of observing the child’s actions, it seems that he is reading his images, pointing to very specific lines or scribbles, as if for him they really mean something specific. For a child of this age, the drawn lines apparently mean something and have already turned into primitive indicators for semantic memory. A simple children's drawing is, in essence, a kind of symbolic-graphic prerequisite for a child's written speech.

1.2 Sensory development

Sensory - Sensitive, feeling, relating to sensations. Dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes. Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. - 3rd ed., M.: Russian language vol. 4.1987. C 77

A child attending kindergarten not only distinguishes colors, shapes, sizes of objects and their position in space, but can correctly name the proposed colors and shapes of objects, and correctly correlate objects by size. He can also draw the simplest shapes and color them in a given color.

It is very important that the child is able to establish the identity of objects to one or another standard. Standards are examples of the main varieties of qualities and properties of objects developed by humanity. So sensory standards are: the colors of the spectrum, white and black; all kinds of forms; pitch of sounds; time intervals, etc. They were created during the history of human culture and are used by people as samples, standards, with the help of which the correspondence of perceived reality to one or another standard from a system of ordered standards is established.

If a child can correctly name the color and shape of an object, if he can correlate a perceived quality with a standard, then we can consider that he can establish identity (the ball is round), partial similarity (an apple is round, but not perfect, like a ball), dissimilarity (ball and cube). Thoroughly examining, feeling or listening, the child performs correlative actions and traces the connection of what is perceived with the standard.

Sensory standards allow people to correctly navigate the surrounding reality and understand each other. For schooling, it is important that the child’s sensory development is sufficiently high.

By the age of six, a normally developed child understands well that a picture or drawing is a reflection of reality. Therefore, he tries to correlate paintings and drawings with reality, to see what is depicted in them. Looking at a drawing, a copy of a painting, or the painting itself, a child of six years old, accustomed to fine arts, no longer perceives the multicolor palette used by the artist as mud, he already believes that the world really consists of an infinite number of sparkling colors. The child already knows how to correctly evaluate a perspective image, since he knows that the same object located far away looks small in the picture, and much larger when close. Therefore, he peers closely and correlates images of some objects with others. Children love to look at pictures - after all, these are stories about life that they are so eager to comprehend.

1.3 Development of thinking

Thinking - A person’s ability to think, reason, draw conclusions; a special stage in the process of reflection of objective reality by consciousness. Dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes. Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. - 3rd ed., M.: Russian language vol. 2.1987.P.318

First of all, thinking is the highest cognitive process. It represents the generation of new knowledge, an active form of creative reflection and transformation of reality by a person. Thinking generates a result that does not exist either in reality itself or in the subject at a given moment in time. Thinking (in elementary forms it is also present in animals) can also be understood as the acquisition of new knowledge, the creative transformation of existing ideas.

The difference between thinking and other psychological processes is that it is almost always associated with the presence of a problem situation, a task that needs to be solved, and an active change in the conditions in which this task is given. Thinking, unlike perception, goes beyond the limits of the sensory data and expands the boundaries of knowledge. In practice, thinking as a separate mental process does not exist; it is invisibly present in all other cognitive processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory, speech. The highest forms of these processes are necessarily associated with thinking, and the degree of its participation in these cognitive processes determines their level of development

A feature of a child’s healthy psyche is cognitive activity. A child’s curiosity is constantly aimed at understanding the world around him and building his own picture of this world. The child, while playing, experiments, tries to establish cause-and-effect relationships and dependencies. He himself, for example, can find out which objects will sink and which will float. He has many questions about the phenomena of life around him. The more mentally active a child is, the more questions he asks and the more varied these questions are.

The child strives for knowledge, and the acquisition of knowledge itself occurs through numerous “why?”, “how?”, “why?” He is forced to operate with knowledge, imagine situations and try to find a possible way to answer the question. A preschooler, when some problems arise before him, tries to solve them by actually trying them on and trying them out, but he can solve problems, as they say, in his head. He imagines a real situation and, as it were, acts in it in his imagination. Such thinking, in which the solution of a problem occurs as a result of internal actions with images, is called visual-figurative. A distinctive feature of this type of thinking is that the thought process is directly related to the thinking person’s perception of the surrounding reality and cannot take place without it. Thoughts are visual and figurative, the child is attached to reality, and the images themselves necessary for thinking are presented in his short-term and operative memory.

Figurative thinking is the main type of thinking of a six-year-old child nka. He, of course, can think logically in some cases, but it should be remembered that this age is sensitive to learning based on visualization. The thinking of a six-year-old child is characterized by egocentrism, a special mental position due to the lack of knowledge necessary to correctly solve certain problem situations. Thus, the child himself does not open his personal experience knowledge about the preservation of such properties of objects as length, volume, weight, etc. The lack of systematic knowledge and insufficient development of concepts leads to the fact that the logic of perception dominates in the child’s thinking. Thus, it is difficult for a child to evaluate the same amount of water, sand, plasticine, etc. as equal (the same thing), when before his eyes their volume changes depending on the shape of the vessel or a new static shape given to it. The child becomes dependent because he sees objects changing at every new moment.

1.4 General characteristics of attention

Attention - The concentration of thoughts or vision, hearing on any object, the direction of thought on something Dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes. Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. - 3rd ed., M.: Russian language vol. 1.1987.P.189. Well-known foreign and domestic psychologists and teachers have been and are studying the problem of studying attention for many decades.

In his works, the domestic psychologist N.F. Dobrynin emphasizes that attention is a special type of mental activity, expressed in the selection and maintenance of certain processes of this activity. Dobrynin N. F. About new studies of attention // Questions of psychology. 1973. No. 3 p. 121 - 128 P.125 L.S. Vygotsky and L.N. Leontyev pointed out the essential importance of speech for attention, because through a word, an object is indicated on which to focus. L.S. Vygotsky tried to trace the history of the development of attention. He wrote that the history of attention is the history of the development of the organization of his behavior, that the key to the genetic understanding of attention should be sought not in the nutria, but outside the child’s personality. Vygotsky L. S. Development of higher forms of attention in childhood. A textbook on attention. - M. 1976. -186 pp. 147.

P.Ya. Galperin defines attention as an ideal, compressed and automated action of control, the doctrine of attention as a function of control is an integral part of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions Galperin P. Ya. On the problem of education // Reader on attention. - M. 1976. -127 s . P.110.

The problem of developing children's voluntary attention has long been of interest and concern to educators, teachers, and psychologists. Currently, it is well known how complex and voluminous the primary school curriculum is, and how difficult it can sometimes be for a child who cannot maintain attention to details, is not focused on work, is absent-minded, restless, and inattentive. Children who know how to hold their attention to details for a long time, who are diligent and attentive feel completely different. These children fit into the learning process more easily. Working in close continuity with the school, educators monitor the success of their graduates at school. According to a school psychologist, among first-graders, 55% of children encounter difficulties in accepting a new social position as a schoolchild.

In modern psychological science it is customary to distinguish how many main types of attention are there?

Involuntary attention is the simplest type of attention ania. It is often called passive, or forced, because it arises and is maintained independently of a person’s consciousness. The activity captivates a person by itself, due to its fascination, entertainment or surprise.

Unlike involuntary attention, the main feature of voluntary attention is that it is controlled by a conscious goal. This type of attention is closely related to the will of a person and was developed as a result of labor efforts, therefore it is also called volitional, active, intentional. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of mental processes. Voluntary attention is qualitatively different from involuntary attention. But they are closely related to each other, since voluntary attention arose from involuntary attention. Voluntary attention is also associated with a person’s feelings, interests, and previous experiences.

There is another type of attention, which, like voluntary attention, is purposeful in nature and initially requires volitional efforts, but then the person “enters” into the work: the content and process of the activity, and not just its result, become interesting and significant. This kind of attention was called post-voluntary. In contrast to truly involuntary attention, postvoluntary attention remains associated with conscious goals and is supported by conscious interests.

In preschoolers, involuntary attention predominates. This manifests itself in rapid distractibility, inability to concentrate on one thing, and in frequent changes of activities. Voluntary attention is formed gradually, as its individual properties develop, such as volume, concentration, distribution, switching and stability. The development of attention is closely related to the development of responsibility, which involves carefully performing any task - both interesting and uninteresting. The role of emotional factors (interest), mental and volitional processes clearly affects the development of attention.

The child’s cognitive activity, aimed at examining the world around him, organizes his attention on the objects under study for quite a long time, until interest dries up. If a six-year-old child is busy with a game that is important to him, then he can play for two or even three hours without being distracted. For just as long, he can be focused on productive activities (drawing, designing, making crafts that are meaningful to him). However, such results of focusing attention are a consequence of interest in what the child is doing. He will languish, be distracted and feel completely unhappy if he has to be attentive in an activity that he is indifferent to or does not like at all.

The child can be helped in organizing attention. An adult can organize the child's attention using verbal instructions. He is reminded of the need to perform a given action, while indicating the methods of action. For example, Children! Let's open the albums. Let’s take a red pencil and draw a circle in the upper left corner—here—here…” etc. A six-year-old child can plan his own activities. At the same time, he verbally states what he should, how he should and in what sequence he will perform this or that work. Planning certainly organizes the child's attention.

1.5 Perception is a necessary prerequisite and condition for the life and activities of preschool children

Perception - Reflection in the human consciousness of objects and phenomena of the material world acting at a given time on the senses, including understanding and comprehending them on the basis of previous experience Dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes. Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. - 3rd ed., M.: Russian language vol. 1.1987.P.216.

In order to correctly navigate the world around us, it is important to perceive not only each individual object, but also the situation, a complex of some objects as a whole. Perception, the process of a person’s reflection of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world with their direct impact on the senses, helps to combine the individual properties of objects and create a holistic image. The perception of even a simple object is a very complex process that includes the work of sensory, motor and speech mechanisms. Perception is based not only on sensations that every moment allow you to feel the world around you, but also on the previous experience of a growing person. Chuprikova N.I. “Mental development and learning” (Psychological foundations of developmental education)

A child is not born with a ready ability to perceive the world around him, but learns this. In early preschool age, images of perceived objects are very vague and indistinct. Thus, children of three or four years old do not recognize the teacher dressed in a fox costume at a matinee, although her face is open. If children come across an image of an unfamiliar object, they snatch some detail from the image and, relying on it, comprehend the entire depicted object.

Despite the fact that a child can see and hear sounds from birth, he must be systematically taught to look at, listen to and understand what he perceives. The perception mechanism is ready, but the child is still learning to use it. Uruntaeva G.A. Preschool psychology: A textbook for students of secondary pedagogical educational institutions. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 1996.-336p.

Throughout childhood, the child begins to more and more accurately evaluate the color and shape of surrounding objects, their weight, size, temperature, surface properties, etc. He learns to perceive music by repeating its rhythm and melodic pattern. Learns to navigate in space and time, in the sequence of events. By playing, drawing, constructing, laying out mosaics, making appliqués, the child, imperceptibly for himself, assimilates sensory standards - ideas about the main varieties of properties and relationships that arose during the historical development of mankind and are used by people as models, standards. Zhurova L.E., Varentsova N.S., Durova N.V., Nevskaya L.N. "Teaching preschool children to read and write." Moscow, “School-Press”, 1998.

By the age of five, a child can easily navigate the range of primary colors of the spectrum and name basic geometric shapes. In older preschool age, ideas about color and shape are being improved and complicated. Thus, the child learns about the variability of each color in terms of saturation (lighter, darker), that colors are divided into warm and cold, and gets acquainted with soft, pastel, and sharp, contrasting color combinations.

The system of measures (millimeter, centimeter, meter, kilometer) and how to use them, as a rule, are not yet learned in preschool age. Children can only indicate in words what place in size an object occupies among others (largest, largest, smallest, smallest, etc.). Typically, by the beginning of preschool age, children have an idea of ​​the relationship in magnitude only between two simultaneously perceived objects. In early and middle preschool age, children develop ideas about the relationships in size between three objects (large - smaller - smallest). In older preschool age, children develop ideas about individual dimensions of size: length, width, height, as well as spatial relationships between objects.

In preschool childhood, the perception of space improves. If at three or four years old a child’s reference point is his own body, then by the age of six or seven years children learn to navigate in space regardless of their own position and are able to change reference points.

The perception of time is much more difficult for a child. Time is fluid, it does not have a visual form, any actions occur not with time, but in time. A child can remember conventional designations and measures of time (minute, hour, tomorrow, the day before yesterday, etc.), but does not always know how to use them correctly, since these designations are conventional and relative in nature.

Older preschoolers are actively entering the world of artistic creativity. The perception of works of art is a unity of cognition and experience. The child learns not only to record what is presented in a work of art, but also to perceive the feelings that its author wanted to convey.

In preschool age, the perception of fairy tales develops. Adults introduce the child to the world of fairy tales. They can help ensure that a fairy tale truly becomes a fairy tale that can transform a child and his life.

The peculiarities of the child’s perception of the people around him are also manifested in his value judgments. Children give the most vivid assessments to those adults to whom they feel affection. For example, in children’s evaluative judgments about adults, indications are given of their appearance (“She’s always smart and beautiful”), the attitude shown toward them (“She hugs me”), the adult’s awareness, and skills (“When I don’t understand something, she tells me she says everything to others too”), moral qualities (“She is affectionate and cheerful”). Children's perception of each other depends on how popular or rejected the child is in the children's community. Special studies have revealed that the higher the senior preschooler’s position in the group, the higher his peers rate him, and vice versa.

When assessing children for whom they showed sympathy, six-year-old children overwhelmingly name only the positive qualities of their peers: “handsome,” “draws well,” “can read.” Children respond negatively to peers for whom they do not like: “beats”, “plays poorly”, “greedy”, etc.

If evaluative judgments about the people around a younger preschooler are, as a rule, undifferentiated, unstable, and changeable, then by the age of six or seven they become more complete, developed, and adequate. As children grow older, they increasingly perceive not so much the external as the internal personal qualities of other people.

1.6 Features of the development of sensations

Sensation - The result of the influence of phenomena of the objective world on human senses Dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes. Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. - 3rd ed., M.: Russian language vol. 2.1987.P.736.

By the beginning of preschool age, the child’s external perceptive apparatuses are already fully formed. However, this does not mean that preschool children’s senses do not develop. On the contrary, in preschool age sensations continue to rapidly improve, primarily due to the development and complication of the activity of the central part of the analyzers.

Visual sensations, auditory sensations, as well as skin and joint-muscular sensations develop intensively in children aged 3-7 years. This development consists, first of all, in improving the analytical-synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex, which leads to increased sensitivity, to distinguishing the properties of surrounding objects and phenomena. The increasing participation in the processes of analysis of the second signal system makes sensations more accurate, and at the same time gives them a conscious character.

Since sensations serve as the only source of our knowledge, raising children in preschool age necessarily includes the task of sensory education, that is, the task of actively developing sensations in children. Besides special exercises in distinguishing colors, sounds, smells, etc., classes on native language, music, drawing, modeling, designing, etc.

The most important changes in the visual sensations of preschool children occur in the development of visual acuity (i.e., the ability to distinguish small or distant objects) and in the development of the subtlety of distinguishing shades of color.

They often think that the smaller the child, the better and sharper his vision. In fact, this is not entirely true. A study of visual acuity in children 4-7 years old shows that visual acuity in younger preschoolers is lower than in older preschoolers. On the other hand, according to research, visual acuity in children can increase sharply under the influence of the correct organization of exercises in distinguishing distant objects. Thus, in younger preschoolers it quickly increases, on average by 15 - 20%, and in older preschool age - by 30%.

What is the main condition for the successful development of visual acuity? This condition is that the child is given a task that is understandable and interesting to him, which requires him to distinguish objects distant from him from one another. Similar tasks can be given in the form of a game, which, for example, requires the child to show which of several identical boxes standing on a shelf contains a picture or a toy (this box is marked with a figurine icon, somewhat different from those pasted on to other boxes, which is known to the player in advance). At first, children only vaguely “guess” it among others, but after several repetitions of the game they can clearly, consciously distinguish the icon depicted on it.

Thus, the active development of the ability to distinguish distant objects should occur in the process of one or another specific and meaningful activity for the child, and not through formal “training.” Formal “training” of visual acuity not only does not improve it, but in some cases can even cause direct harm - if at the same time you overstrain the child’s vision or allow him to look at an object in conditions of very weak, too strong or uneven, flickering lighting. You should especially avoid allowing children to look at very small objects that have to be held close to their eyes.

In preschool children, visual impairments sometimes go unnoticed. Therefore, the child’s behavior, which is explained by the fact that he has poor vision, can be interpreted incorrectly and suggest incorrect pedagogical conclusions. For example, instead of placing a nearsighted child closer to the picture book in question, the teacher, not knowing about his myopia, tries in vain to draw his attention to details of the picture that he does not see. That is why it is always useful for a teacher to be interested in medical data about the state of children’s vision, and also to check their visual acuity themselves.

In preschool age, children's accuracy in distinguishing shades of color develops significantly. Although by the beginning of preschool age most children can accurately distinguish the primary colors of the spectrum, the discrimination of similar shades in preschoolers is not yet perfect enough

If a child constantly encounters colored materials in his activities and he has to accurately distinguish shades, select them, compose colors, etc., then, as a rule, his color discrimination sensitivity reaches a high level of development. An important role in this is played by children’s work such as laying out colored patterns, appliqué work from natural colored materials, drawing with paints, etc.

It should be borne in mind that in some, although quite rare, cases, color vision disorders occur in children. The child does not see shades of red or shades of green and mixes them together. In other, even rarer cases, some shades of yellow and blue are poorly distinguished. Finally, there are also cases of complete “color blindness,” when only differences in lightness are felt, but the actual colors are not felt at all.

Auditory sensations, like visual sensations, are especially important in the mental development of a child. Hearing is important for speech development. If a child’s hearing sensitivity is impaired or greatly reduced, then speech cannot develop normally. Auditory sensitivity, forming in early childhood, continues to develop in preschool children.

Discrimination of speech sounds is improved in the process of speech communication. Discrimination of musical sounds improves during musical training. Thus, the development of hearing depends to a great extent on upbringing.

A special feature of hearing sensitivity in children is that it is characterized by large individual differences. Some preschoolers have very high hearing sensitivity, while others, on the contrary, have sharply reduced hearing.

The presence of large individual fluctuations in sensitivity to distinguishing the frequency of sounds sometimes leads to the incorrect assumption that auditory sensitivity supposedly depends only on innate inclinations and does not change significantly during the development of the child. In fact, hearing improves with age. Hearing sensitivity almost doubles on average in children aged 6 to 8 years.

ABOUT sensations arising as a result of the action of muscle irritations on the motor analyzer not only play a decisive role in the execution of movements, but also participate, together with skin sensations, in the diverse processes of reflecting the external world, in the formation of correct ideas about its properties. Therefore, nurturing these sensations is also important.

During these same years, children also experience a large qualitative shift in the development of joint and muscle sensations. So, if children about 4 years old are given two boxes for comparison, equal in weight, but different in size, and asked which one is heavier, then in most cases the children evaluate them as equally heavy. At the age of 5-6 years, the assessment of the weight of such boxes changes sharply: now children, as a rule, confidently point to a smaller box as heavier (although the boxes are objectively equal in weight). Children have already begun to take into account the relative weight of an object, as adults usually do.

As a result of practical actions with various objects, the child establishes temporary connections between the visual and motor analyzers, between visual stimuli that signal the size of the object, and joint-muscular stimuli that signal its weight.

The preschool years are a period when a child's senses continue to develop rapidly. The degree of development at this age of certain sensations is directly dependent on the child’s activities, during which their improvement occurs, and therefore is determined by upbringing.

At the same time, high development of sensations is a necessary condition for full mental development. Therefore, proper education of children’s senses in preschool age (the so-called “sensory education”) is of utmost importance, and proper attention should be paid to this aspect of educational work.

1.7 Memory and its development

Memory - The ability to preserve and reproduce previous impressions in the mind Dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes. Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. - 3rd ed., M.: Russian language vol. 3.1987.P.16. It is one of the necessary conditions for the development of intellectual abilities. But if until recently the main attention of scientists was paid to school age, where, as it seemed, the child acquires the knowledge and skills necessary for everyone, develops his strengths and abilities, now the situation has changed radically.

The “information explosion” played a significant role in this - we know knowledge of our time. Today's children are smarter than their predecessors - this is a fact recognized by all. This is primarily due to the media, communication channels that surround the world, pouring a stream of diverse knowledge into children's minds from morning to night. Today there are more and more children with bright general intellectual development; their ability to comprehend the complex modern world manifests itself very early - in early preschool age.

For younger preschoolers, involuntary memorization and involuntary reproduction are the only form of memory work. The development of memory in preschool age is characterized by a gradual transition from involuntary and immediate to voluntary and mediocre memorization and recollection. The key provision of the concept of memory development adopted by the author is the statement that four types of memory (motor, emotional, figurative and verbal) arise in this sequence.

A characteristic feature of the memory of a preschool child is that he remembers concrete words and objects easier and faster, and more difficult - abstract words and concepts. Already at preschool age, the final features of memory begin to be determined. Memorization at this age was mainly voluntary. At this age, memory development is carried out under conditions of systematic, targeted training, which significantly accelerates and increases the level of children’s memory development. At the same time, learning itself places new demands on memory - it is necessary to remember the given material and accurately reproduce it at the request of the teacher.

Types of memory are usually distinguished for different reasons. By content analysis of memorized material - figurative, emotional, motor, verbal. Depending on the method of memorization - logical and mechanical. According to the duration of storage of material, memory can be long-term and short-term. Depending on the presence of a consciously set goal to remember - involuntary and voluntary. There are three main types of memory:

Visual-figurative memory, which helps to remember faces, sounds, colors, shapes of objects, etc. well.

Verbal-logical memory, in which information is remembered by ear.

Emotional memory, in which experienced feelings, emotions and events are remembered.

Thus, we see that all types of memory are distinguished depending on what is remembered and how long it is remembered.

Figurative memory is the memory of ideas, pictures of nature and life, as well as sounds, smells, tastes. It can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory. If visual and auditory memory are usually well developed and play a leading role in the life orientation of all normal people, then tactile, olfactory and gustatory memory in a certain sense can be called professional types: like the corresponding sensations, these types of memory develop especially intensively in connection with specific conditions activities

The content of verbal-logical memory is our thoughts. Thoughts do not exist without language, which is why memory for them is called not just logical, but verbally - logical. In verbal-logical memory, the main role belongs to the second signaling system. This type of memory is a specifically human type, in contrast to motor, emotional and figurative, which in their simplest forms are also characteristic of animals. Based on the development of other types of memory, verbal-logical memory becomes leading in relation to them, and the development of all other types of memory depends on its development. It plays a leading role in the assimilation of knowledge during the learning process.

Motor memory is the memorization, preservation and reproduction of various movements and their systems. The great importance of this type of memory is that it serves as the basis for the formation of various practical and work skills, just like the skills of walking, writing, etc. Without memory for movements, we would have to learn each time to first carry out certain actions.

Depending on the purpose of the activity, memory is divided into involuntary and voluntary.

Memorization and reproduction, in which there is no special goal to remember or remember something, is called involuntary memory. In cases where we set such a goal, we talk about voluntary memory. In the latter case, the processes of memorization and reproduction act as special, mnemonic actions.

Involuntary and voluntary memory, however, represent two successive stages of memory development. Everyone knows from their own experience what a huge place in our lives is occupied by non-voluntary memory, on the basis of which, without special mnemonic intentions and efforts, the main part of our experience, both in volume and in life significance, is formed. However, in human activity there often arises the need to manage one’s memory. Under these conditions, voluntary memory plays an important role, making it possible to deliberately learn or remember what is necessary.

Long-term memory is a memory subsystem that provides long-term (hours, years, sometimes decades) retention of knowledge, as well as the preservation of skills and abilities and is characterized by a huge object of stored information. The main mechanism of information. The main mechanism for entering data into long-term memory and fixing it is usually considered repetition, which is carried out at the level of short-term memory. However, purely mechanical repetition does not lead to stable long-term memorization. In addition, repetition serves as a necessary condition for fixing data in long-term memory only in the case of verbal or easily verbalized information. Of decisive importance is the meaningful interpretation of new material, the establishment of connections between it and what is already known to the subject.

Unlike long-term memory, which is characterized by long-term retention of material after repeated repetition and reproduction, short-term memory is characterized by very brief retention after a single very short perception and immediate reproduction.

Initially, the child has a predominance of figurative memory, the importance of which decreases with age. Nevertheless, the result of memorization is usually higher when relying on visual material, so the widespread use of visual teaching aids is natural and effective. The capabilities of natural memory are manifested to the greatest extent in preschool age.

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Characteristics of sensations, perception (voluntary, intentional), representation, attention, imagination, thinking (deduction, analogy), memory (figurative, motor, emotional, verbal-logical) and speech as mental cognitive processes.

Development of cognitive processes.

Cognitive processes- These are the main forms of mental activity that allow you to quickly, deeply and correctly navigate the phenomena of the surrounding reality.

Thinking – human cognitive activity to identify externally hidden features of an object, characterized by generalization and indirectness; application, transformation and updating of the stock of knowledge acquired in the teaching.

Seriation – construction of ordered increasing or decreasing series. A classic example of seriation: nesting dolls, pyramids.

Analysis- highlighting the properties of an object, or selecting an object from a group, or selecting a group of objects based on a certain characteristic. For example, the characteristic is given: all are sour. First, each object is checked for the presence or absence of this feature, and then they are isolated and combined into a group based on the “sour” feature.

Synthesis - combining different elements into a single whole. In psychology, analysis and synthesis are considered as complementary processes (analysis is carried out through synthesis, and synthesis is carried out through analysis.

Comparison - a logical method of mental action that requires identifying similarities and differences between the characteristics of an object.

For example: 1) There are two apples on the board - a small yellow one and a large red one. Children have a set of shapes: blue triangle, red square, small green circle, large yellow circle, red triangle, yellow square.

Assignment: find one that looks like apples among your figures.

What shape can be called similar to apples?

Classification - division of a set into groups according to some criterion, which is called the “basis of classification”. Classification can be carried out:

By name (cups and plates, shells and pebbles)

To size

By color

By shape

For example : There are several circles on the board of the same size but different colors. Assignment: Divide the circles into two groups.

On what basis can this be done?

Generalization - this is the presentation in verbal form of the results of the comparison process. When formulating a generalization, the teacher helps children construct it correctly, use the necessary terms and verbiage.

For example : find the extra figure from the given ones. Why is she redundant?

How are the others similar?

Memory - includes the processes of remembering, storing and reproducing. At a younger age, two types of memory are more amenable to targeted development: figurative and verbal. The development of verbal memory is carried out by memorizing various rhymes and poems. The following games contribute to the development of figurative memory: “What’s missing?” Having examined 2-4 small objects on the table with the child, the teacher covers them with a scarf and hides one in his hand under the scarf.

“What has changed?” a small story group is lined up on the table, the child must remember it, then the teacher changes 1-2 details. The child’s task is to notice what has changed:

The bear was sitting on a chair, now on the floor.

Attention- it is the direction and concentration of consciousness. Appearing as if inside cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking), attention helps to increase their effectiveness.

Imagination - the process of transforming existing ideas. Creation of new images based on existing ones. Exercises like “What does it look like?” are useful.

The development of a student’s personality presupposes the maximum realization of his activity, initiative and independence in the learning process. Creating conditions for this is an important task at all levels of the lifelong education system.

Human activity is the universal form of his existence as an individual, the condition for realizing himself as an individual.

Genuine activity is manifested not only (and not so much) in the student’s adaptation to educational influences, but in their independent transformation on the basis of subjective experience, which is unique and inimitable for everyone.

Any activity is associated with individual goals and intentions, human needs. Social values ​​cannot be imposed; they must be consistent with the student’s individual values, which have become the content of his inner world, a source of subjective activity.

The mechanism of formation of cognitive activity can be expressed very succinctly by the formula of S.L. Rubinstein: “external conditions act through internal ones, forming a single whole with them.”

Independent work as a means of developing cognitive activity.

Independent comprehension of the material contributes to the development of creativity and is an indicator of the student’s intellectual growth. The development of independence in children is a complex, sometimes contradictory process, but when it is systematically carried out at the proper level, the quality and strength of knowledge increases, cognitive processes, mental activity, skills and abilities of students develop.

Literary reading lessons have great opportunities for organizing independent work. When talking about independent work, we most often note such forms as retelling, drawing up a plan, oral composition, and verbal drawing. But if we look at all these forms of work from the point of view of student participation in them, we will see that the same form of work can take place at different levels of independence.

The most striking example of this is retelling.

1 .Detailed retelling. Children need to reproduce the text completely, without changing or adding anything. In this case, it is mainly the memory that works.

2 .Selective retelling. Now the students have to select only what is relevant to the task and reflect on the text, thereby increasing the children’s level of independence.

3 . A brief retelling is a new level of complexity. It is necessary to highlight the most important things, to trace the main storyline and the main idea of ​​the author.

Thus, students work at different levels of independence. Based on the level of independence, work can be divided into groups.

To the first group These include works of a reproductive nature; when performing them, schoolchildren rely on memory and simply reproduce what they have read.

For example:

What fairy tales by Pushkin have you read or heard?

Which poet owns the lines...?

Remember the proverbs about work.

Second group - works that reproduce but with elements of creativity.

Why is the section called “Pick one berry at a time and you’ll get a box full of it”?

What do you notice that is similar and different in the spelling of these words? Scythe-goat, flu-mushroom.

Third group- such questions and tasks that require rethinking the educational material and reflecting on events.

This is partly search work.

Why fairy tales? Built by the Russian people a long time ago, they still live today?

Why was Gerda stronger than the Snow Queen?

The highest degree of independence is manifested in workfourth group. These are creative works of a search nature.

Try to talk about how clouds appear. Explain the reasons for the rain.

Come up with a descriptive text.

Planning independent work. The teacher must proceed from the fact that a different combination of independent work will only lead to effective teaching when it does not represent a mechanical set of questions and tasks. Independent of didactic purposes.

Another thing is equally important: if training does not provide for difficulties in academic work, then the cognitive powers of schoolchildren will not develop. Knowledge acquired independently is distinguished by depth and strength, and becomes beliefs.

The cognitive activity of children is not limited to lessons, but continues in their extracurricular activities. One of the common forms of extracurricular activities to develop students' cognitive activity are quizzes and competitions. They take great pleasure in taking literary quizzes: “Do you know fairy tales?” Competitions for lovers of the Russian language and mathematics experts are no less interesting and useful.

To two bunnies at lunchtime

Three neighbors arrived.

Hares sat in the garden

And they ate three carrots.

How many carrots did you eat?

Five bunnies are sitting in the corner,

They peel turnips on the floor.

We counted 20 pieces,

Suddenly they forgot how to divide!

In 1st grade, students get acquainted with the world around them. The “Whychek” club will help you enrich the knowledge gained in the lesson. Classes in the club can be held in the form of meetings and sessions. Group assignments are of great interest: 1 group - prepare questions on a given topic.

2nd group -compose a collective story or fairy tale about one of the animals.

3 group - make drawings of animals.

The club also uses constantly changing stands.

For example : in the center of the stand there is a large chamomile, illuminated by the rays of the sun. At the bottom of the grass stems are written questions:

Why do the leaves on trees turn yellow in autumn?

Does a tree grow in winter?

What flowers should you not pick?

What trees are boletus, boletus, chanterelle, and boletus friends with?

To answer these questions, children need to consult with their parents, teacher, and look at books. In this way, schoolchildren gradually become accustomed to the idea that they can learn something new not only in class, but also on their own.

Particular attention should be paid to travel games. Primary school students are happy to travel to the world of professions, to the city of cheerful craftsmen, favorite activities, along their street, city. Such creative games effectively solve cognitive and educational problems. The game helps to involve schoolchildren in creative exploration.

Improving the quality of schoolchildren's education is one of the most important tasks. Its implementation should not take place due to additional burden on students, but through improving forms and methods. In solving this issue, we attach great importance to the development of interest among younger schoolchildren in learning, the process of cognition in general. It is during the first school years that children develop cognitive interest and cognitive activity. Cognitive interest and cognitive activity do not arise on their own. The leading role in this process belongs to the school. The psychological characteristics of children of primary school age, their natural curiosity, responsiveness to everything around them, a special disposition to learn new things, and a willingness to accept everything that the teacher gives, create favorable conditions for the development of their cognitive interest and activity. Cognitive interest acts as a selective orientation of the individual, addressed to the field of knowledge, its subject side. In pedagogical practice, cognitive interest is considered as an external stimulus, as a means of activation, making the learning process attractive.

LITERATURE.

1. Beloshistaya A.V. Teaching mathematics in primary school. Moscow Iris didactics.2006.

2. Gavrilycheva G.F. Development of cognitive activity of schoolchildren in extracurricular activities. // Elementary school. 1986. No. 12.

3.Karina L.P. independent work in reading lessons as a means of developing cognitive activity.//Elementary school.2004.No.7.

4.Tepishkina E.Yu. Dialogue of the educational process as a means of activating the cognitive activity of students. // Primary

school.2003.No.2.

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Cognitive processes– these are mental processes that ensure the receipt, storage and reproduction of information and knowledge from the environment.

We can say that when they talk about abilities, talent, genius, intelligence and level of development, they mean, first of all, cognitive processes. A person is born with these inclinations, but at the beginning of life he uses them unconsciously; later their formation occurs. If he learns to use them correctly, and most importantly, to develop them, he will be able to achieve the most ambitious goals.

There are different classifications of cognitive processes, most often there are eight of them. Brief description of them:

1. Memory: This is a system of remembering, forgetting and reproducing experiences over time. In the psychology of cognitive processes, memory ensures the integrity of the individual.
2. Attention: This is the selective direction of perception towards something. At the same time, attention is not considered a separate cognitive process, but rather a property of the others.
3. Perception: sensory knowledge of objects in the surrounding world, subjectively appearing direct, immediate. It is very closely related to sensations, through which information is received by the brain and is material for processing, evaluation and interpretation by perception.
4. Thinking: this is an opportunity to gain certain knowledge about phenomena that cannot be perceived through other cognitive processes. It can be verbal-logical, visual-entrepreneurial, practical, visual-figurative.
5. Imagination: a person’s ability to spontaneously arise or deliberately construct in the mind images, ideas, ideas of objects. It is the basis of visual-figurative thinking.
6. Speech: the process of communication that occurs through language. A person is capable of perceiving and accepting linguistic structures, creating and reproducing his thoughts using language.
7. Performance: the ability to reflect in consciousness the quality of various objects. There are speech, phonetic, auditory, intonation, musical and visual representations.
8. Feel: a person’s ability to sense specific phenomena and objects around him. Our consciousness, one might say, exists only thanks to them. There are gustatory, visual, olfactory, auditory and tactile sensations (however, some scientists believe that these are only basic; there are also additional ones). Information obtained through sensations (sense organs) is transmitted to the brain and perception comes into play.

On our website you can find a lot of materials devoted to the theory and training of various cognitive processes:

• (also develops attention).
• (trains imagination, memory and presentation).
• (trains thinking).

Diagnostics of cognitive processes in adults and children

In psychiatry, there are a huge number of tests and techniques that diagnose cognitive processes.

Children's tests can be divided by age:

• From 3 to 6.
• From 7 to 16.

Tests for schoolchildren from 3 to 6 years old:

• "Cut out the shapes." For psychodiagnostics of visual-effective thinking.
• “Remember and dot the points.” Attention span.
• “Who lacks what? " For psychodiagnostics of children's thinking.
• "Find the sound." To test phonemic hearing.
• "Divide into groups." To diagnose figurative-logical thinking.

Tests for children from 7 to 16 years old:

• "20 words". To assess the development of memorization techniques.
• "Comparison of concepts". To assess the ability to carry out analytical and synthetic activities.

Tests for adults:

• "Anagrams - 2011. Form A." To identify the level of fluency of abstract logical thinking and combinatorial abilities.
• “Memorizing words according to A. R. Luria.” To study memory processes.
• "Quantitative relations". To assess logical thinking.
• "Munstenberg test". Noise immunity and selectivity of attention.

Whatever the level of your cognitive processes, you must train them, and ideally this should be done constantly.

Let's focus on each cognitive process and find out what games and exercises there are to develop it. Of course, it is impossible to fully cover the topic in the space of a blog article, so this is just basic information.

Memory

Exercise one: remembering words.

Read the following list: drum, chair, carpet, letter, cork, tool, pan, picture, vase, pin, bag. Take 30 seconds to memorize them. Don't try to use mnemonics.

Exercise two: remember yesterday.

Our memory deteriorates because we very rarely try to remember past events and do not keep a diary. So sit in a quiet place and try to recreate yesterday in the smallest detail.

Exercise three: kitchen.

Right now, try to remember what your kitchen (or any other room you know well) looks like in detail.

Attention

Exercise one: Stroop test.

Look at the picture and name the colors that each word is written in.

Exercise two: radio.

Play a song that has a lot of words. After 10 seconds, begin to gradually reduce the volume. Set the lowest limit at which you can still understand what is being said. Start listening to this song again. This exercise will allow you to focus only on her.

Exercise three: observation.

Find an image of an unknown painting on the Internet. Look at it for one minute. Close your eyes and try to reproduce it exactly. Open your eyes and compare the results.

Perception

Exercise: overcoming noise (selectivity of perception).

This exercise will require at least four people to participate. The members of each pair are placed from each other at the maximum possible distance (in the corners of the room). After that, everyone starts talking at the same time. The task of each participant is to carry on a dialogue with his partner, despite the noise.

Thinking

Exercise one: brain box.

Choose any three topics. This could be the plot of a recently watched film, an idea, news. Now start thinking about the first topic for three minutes. When finished, move on to the second topic, then to the third.

Exercise two: Find the reason.

The exercise must be done in company. One person performs an action for a reason known only to him, and the second participant must guess it. And so on until all the motives for the behavior of the first participant are clarified.

Imagination

Exercise one: random words.

Pick ten random words from a book or magazine. Link them together to make a short story, interspersing them with other words.

Exercise two: an idea from chaos.

Take a sheet of paper and randomly place several dots on it. Connect them with lines. What associations does the figure evoke? What does she look like? The same game can be played by two people. One draws, the other guesses and vice versa.

Speech

These exercises are suitable for children from 2 to 6 years old.

Exercise one: words starting with a specific letter.

Ask your child to name as many words as possible that start with a specific letter.

Exercise two: Search for verbs.

Choose nouns for your child ("house", "road", "car") and let him choose verbs for them. For example, a car drives, brakes, turns, stops, accelerates.

Exercise three: retelling what you read.

Choose a story that is likely to interest your child. Read it. Now invite him to retell the text, ask clarifying questions.

Performance

To form and develop spatial understanding, we recommend that you collect puzzles and play with Lego as much as possible. This activity is useful for both a child and not shameful for an adult.

Feel

Exercise one: observing a tree (visual sensation).

Look out the window and watch a tree or any other large object. Appreciate its height, beauty, colors. Compare with other trees.

Exercise two: Compare sounds.

Go out onto the balcony again and listen to the sounds. Choose the two that are the most intense and loud. Start comparing.

Exercise three: taste sensations.

If you have two types of cheese or other product, cut it into small pieces and try one at a time. What is the difference? Find 5 differences.

We wish you good luck!